Research Paper of Advertising Essay

Advertising is a form of communication in which companies promote their products and services in order to convince consumers to buy or patronize their goods. It is used to help increase the sales of the product, familiarize the consumers of a particular brand, inform people of changes in an existing product and to introduce a new product to the market. Advertising is also closely related to selling and they are barely inseparable. Their only difference is that: when a person advertises by word of mouth and by personal contact, it is called â€Å"selling†, but when we sell or try to sell by printed word, we call that â€Å"advertising†. Advertising really plays a part a big part in the success of a business. Companies spend large sums of money for the advertisements of their goods and services. In 2002, almost $236 billion was spent on advertising in the United states alone and $500 Billion worldwide. (â€Å"Advertising†,n.d.,par.3) That’s how serious adver tising is in the world of business. Advertising is very common to every marketing organization, they use advertising as a way to build sales and profits for their business. They look advertising as a form of communication in which they can promote or have a continue transactions with customers and consumers. Advertising used to help increase the sales of the product, familiarize the consumers and inform people. Advertising is also often directed to trade channels to influence wholes-sellers, distributors, or retailers to stock or promote the brand. Advertising is value primarily for its ability to enhance or improve the sales of the product or service advertised. Advertising has evolved into a very complicated and complex art. It has gotten so huge that it has developed various types and variations. Print, outdoor, broadcast, covert and public service advertising are just some of its examples. Promoting products with the use of newspapers, magazines and other print media is a part of advertising. Next is the outdoor advertising, it is where you make use of billboards, kiosks, tradeshows and events in promoting a product. Broadcast advertising is another popular medium in advertising in which makes use of the television, radio and the internet. Covert advertising is a unique method in which a product or a brand is subtly or sometimes evidently  showcased in entertainment shows like movies and television shows. Lastly, the public service advertising is a technique that makes use of advertising as an effective communication medium to convey socially relevant messages about important matters and social welfare like energy conservation, political integrity, deforestation, poverty, illiteracy and so on. (Manohar, n.d.par.7) Advertising has greatly influenced the society: from a producer directed to being consumer – driven technological advances and economic growth through increasing sales. Using videos to boast sales, videos to boost sales, videos often speaks louder than words. Youtube demonstration featuring ordinary products have attracted many of viewers online. Getting noticed doesn’t required slick production from a personnel studio. Even companies are using videos to produce an entertaining demonstration about the products. There is one company named front point Security Company become successful in using videos demonstration to expand its pool of customers. Sales marketing nowadays are using different technology to boost their sales. ( Joyner, p.81) Nowadays, with the advancement of technology, social media has been very useful not just in communication but also in marketing. With the emergence of Facebook, twitter and mobile technology it became faster and easier for the advertisers and celebrities to share their thoughts and opinions about they are endorsing. People involved in advertising know how much it is necessary to always search and think of new ways to communicate with consumers. Hence, advertising is a very dynamic field. Changes are dictated by the consumers themselves. And with the advancement of technology, it became easier to marketers to reach out and send messages. They are looking beyond the usual media to better communicate with people from different walks of life. Now, the advertising strategy does not only include print advertising but also commercials to be run on network television and internet websites. Television is one the most powerful mediums in advertising. People can instantly unwind and relax once they get in front of the TV. Another factor that makes television more effective than the others is that it can reach vast of number of people since a most of the people now own a television or has access to one. Television advertisements have the power to involve the viewers’ emotions into the advertisements. They may feel sad, happy, angry, etc. whenever they watch certain commercials on TV, depending on what is  being depicted on the product advertisement. More importantly, the outstanding advantage of television for advertising is that it enables the advertiser to vitalize his message to millions of prospects with the aid of sight and sound, he can enliven his advertising, add interest to his sales talk, and present arguments in a personal and vivid manner, the advertiser can make his viewers to receptive to his sales message. Using celebrities to endorse a product is one strategy advertiser’s use in their product advertisements. They use celebrities because they have recognized and seen the power of celebrities in controlling the buying the decisions of the consumers. They rely mainly on the celebrity’s popularity and credibility to persuade consumers in purchasing or in patronizing their products. Advertisers think that with the use of celebrities, they can establish instant brand recall, refresh and add new significance to the brand image. This is possible because celebrities create positive feelings toward a brand and consumers perceive them to be very entertaining once they appear on the advertisements. (Boorstin, 2005) Celebrity endorsements carry a lot of benefits for the company of the product they are endorsing. That is why the companies are so much eager to hire them to promote their goods and services. One of the advantages in celebrity endorsements is an instant establishment of credibility. This means with the celebrity’s approval in promoting a certain brand or product it creates a sense of trust for the brand among the target consumers. Another is the guaranteed attention of the viewers of the advertisements. Using celebrities or well-known personalities would make it more noticeable and interesting, therefore grabbing the attention of the viewer. Another advantage is the higher degree of recall or the extent in which a consumer can remember the brand (Boorstin, 2005). The recall value will rise if people will perceive the brand and the celebrity as two equal elements. Since celebrities are adored and idolized by their fans, they are being tapped to influence the fans towards their endorsed brand. Lastly, celebrity can also compensate for the lack of innovative ideas of the advertisers. Celebrities have penetrated the world of advertising and business. Their faces are literally can be seen everywhere. Numerous companies are now turning to celebrities to promote their products and services in hope of increasing their sales or attracting more customers. Just like what the Pantene now are doing. They  get the number one endorser in the Philippines Ms. Kris Aquino to promote and endorse their product. Kris Aquino is known to be top endorser of the Philippines (Yes! Magazine, 2011). Being the most influential and most acknowledge endorser in the Philippines for two consecutive years the queen of all media grabbed the top spot in the list. The use of celebrities as endorsers has been so popular as it has been so costly to many producers, but the question that must be answered is that do the sales pay off, if not outweigh, the amount it cost the manufacture to hire those celebrities. According to a July 2011 paper, a conclusion that endorsement were effective and helpful, in boosting up the sales by the $ 10 million a year, on average was drawn after conducting a study thus it really pays off (Plank, p.48) Researchers shown that more than 20 percent of all TV advertisement includes celebrities and advertisers pay a lot of money for their services ( Belch & Belch, 2001) and advertisers are ready to pay a lot of money to celebrities who are liked and respected by the consumers. Celebrity endorsements still are powerful forces for brands to use to support themselves. But more importantly, those who respond to celebrity endorsers on social media are themselves far more likely to follow and respond to follow and respond to b rands on social media. Celebrities are hired as endorsers because they could bring the products to fame among the public. The main tasks they do are to introduce and recommend the product. They become effective once the consumer associate them, who are considered meaningful people by the latter, with the commodity for sale. (Fowles, pp. 126-127) If there are advantages in celebrity endorsements, there must be also be disadvantages. Celebrities are not perfect and are just normal and they are also a human. His they are prone in making mistakes too. It can be very damaging to the image of a brand when famous personalities misbehave. That is why companies immediately act quickly when something wrong happens. Since the behavior of the celebrities reflects, on a brand, celebrity endorsers may at times become liabilities to the brands they are endorsing ( Fowles, n.d., p.126). Sometimes, too much product endorsements can also be bad to the celebrity and the brands she/he endorsing or advertising. The uniqueness of the endorsement can be weakened if the celebrity does too many advertisements, thus overexposing the celebrity. At times, mistakes can be seen: celebrities getting caught using the  competitor’s brand instead of the product they are endorsing. Like in the case of Britney Spears, who was caught repeatedly drinking Coca-Cola when at that time she was still endorsing Pepsi. Despite the several advantages a celebrity may give to a brand, one mistake it does can be crucial to the company and to the celebrity themselves. ( Katyal. N.d., par. 16) Using celebrities is not a guarantee that the products that they are endorsing will immediately click with the consumers. Sometimes it might succeed and sometimes it might not just work. Here are some examples of successful celebrity endorsements and what made it successful. According to the website of Yes magazine the top ten celebrity endorsers of 2011 were: Kris Aquino, John Llyod Cruz, Sharon Cuneta, Piolo Pascual, Carmina Villaroel, Kim Chui, Sarah Geronimo, Judy Ann Santos, Anne Curtis and Robin Padilla. These celebrities did well in their endorsements mainly because they have managed to connect themselves and the product that they are endorsing. A good campaign brand and an intrinsic link between the celebrity and the message are musts for a successful campaign. ( Boorstin , n.d.,). The consumers were able to find the connection between the celebrities and the product as a result; the advertising message was successfully relayed by the celebrity. Another reason that made them very successful as product endorsers is the fact that they are really big names in the world of show business. They have maintained a good reputation throughout the years; as a result, the consumers began to trust them and began patronizing their products. If celebrities would right away to make a product click to the market, think again. Not all the celebrity endorsements succeed. At times, celebrity endorsement fails because the message the celebrities want to convey to the viewers about the product is not cl early understood. If the consumers find no connection between the celebrity endorser and the product which the celebrity endorser is endorsing, the endorsement will most likely fail and the failure to carry it out well in the advertisements will result to the unsuccessful relay of the message. (Fowles,1996, p. 129-131). The compatibility of the celebrity’s persona with the overall brand image is very important, as a celebrity imparts credibility and inspirational value to a brand and his/her image should perfectly match the brands image. In having an advertisement make sure that the audience will believe in any detail the advertisement has (Popeil, n.p.,par.1). The manner in which  consumers select, take in and process information becomes increasingly important as the marketplace changes and becomes a global one. If consumer’s process and store information this means that to consumers everything they see hear and feel about brands and products is simply a form of advertising. Consumer’s perceptions of a company and or its various brands are a synthesis of the bundle of messages they receive or contacts. A celebrity endorser is â€Å"any individual who enjoys public recognition and who uses this recognition on behalf of a consumer good by appearing with it in an advertisement† (McCracken, 1989, p. 310). Celebrity is used to impart credibility and aspirational values to a brand, but the celebrity needs to match the product. A good brand campaign idea and an intrinsic link between the celebrity and the message are musts for a successful campaign. Celebrities are no doubt good at generating attention, recall and positive attitudes towards advertising provided that they are supporting a good idea and there is an explicit fit between them and the brand. On the other hand, they are rendered useless when it comes to the actual efficiency of the core product, creating positive attitudes to brands, purchase intentions and actual sales. Celebrities are people who enjoy public recognition by a large share of a certain group of people. Whereas attributes like attractiveness, extraordinary lifestyle or special skills are just examples and specific common characteristics cannot be observed, it can be said that within a corresponding social group, celebrities generally different from the social normal human. When it comes in advertising celebrities have their own strategy where when they advertise people will immediately recall the product that they are endorsing. Advertisers believe that when they get a celebrity to endorse their product it will help them to increase their sales and also it will be easy for them to promote because celebrities can always see in television and some people are patronizing them. According to Daniel J Boorsting â€Å"A sign of a celebrity is that his or her name is often worth than his or her services† many people consumed their entire lives listening to what their favorite celebritie s are saying about. A consumer’s decision in choosing a brand is greatly affected by an advertisement seen prior to the purchase. The number of goods purchased would only be measurable if the total number of consumers is controlled. Being entertained, being bombarded with sales talk, whether positive or  negative, celebrity endorsement has really proven to affect decisions of consumers although; the mentality on advertising still remains the same. All we really need is credible information. The top endorser in the Philippines Kris Aquino is a sample of a good and well known endorser. Kris Aquino is the top endorser and most payable endorser in the Philippines. Kris Aquino is very in demand endorser in the Philippines and many advertisers believe in her effectiveness in endorsing a certain product. The Pantene shampoo is one of the product that’s Ms. Kris Aquino is endorsing. But is Ms. Kris Aquino effective enough to catch the attention of female consumer? Maybe, since lot of women idolize Kris Aquino. One of the reasons why people like her so much are because of her personality, she is unpredictable, always stirs controversies. Her personality is blunt; she will criticize and comment with her honest opinion about issues, things, events and everything around her. She speaks her mind, often times tackles. She is likewise intriguing because of her personality. Talent, she has the talent to connect to audiences, to the masses, she knows how to act, react, communicate and how to show how ordinary she could be just like everybody else. Personal story or life, her life is like a novella, from time to time, there is a twist. New lovers, new things about her kids, her past, her relationship to anybody else, showbiz or non-showbiz, there is always an issue about her like that ma ke her interesting. Family and popularity, she is the daughter of Ninoy Aquino and Former President Cory Aquino. She comes from a line of Filipino royalty, they symbolize, democracy, simplicity, honesty, leadership, more or less, they represent the good in this country. They are the defender, fighter, leader of the country and its citizen. Also, one of the reasons why people follow her is because of her family legacy. Lately, her issues, life came to boring phase because she tries her best not to bring any controversy while her older brother Noynoy is the president. Being a president’s sister and having a family loved by people should have public humility. She should be wise and humble enough to bring disgrace. Her personality and characteristics are maybe the reason why she can catch many women to idolize and patronize her. Kris Aquino advertising plays perspective in from Pantene Management Female consumers Conviction. Pantene management believes in Kris Aquino transparency leading to authenticity. Pantene hair fall control get Kris Aquino to endorse their product. Despite  of Kris Aquino negative attitude like being tough and being prank the Pantene management chooses to have Kris Aquino. Pantene management hopes that after having the most in demand endorser in the Philippines it will help them to boost their sales and will be easy for them to promote their product. Getting Kris Aquino is a strategy for pantene to promote their product. Pantene is relying in Kris Aquino credibility and celebrity status. Kris Aquino assures that every time she will be seen in TV her look is good and every time she will be aired she never forget to tell people what are the secrets behind of her looks. As people see that Kris Aquino is looking better, the people will be curious about what she is telling about, that’s maybe the reason many are following her in every endorsement she has. Regardless of some people hates her still many believe in her advertising power and many still idolize her even there are people who makes bad stories about her, and maybe that is one the reason why Kris Aquino always stands number one in the celebrity stratosphere. Being an influential celebrity brings Kris Aquino to be effective endorser of the Pantene product. Also it helps Pantene to promote their product to the female consumer. Advertising is very common in todays generation and every advertisers have their own strategy on how will they make their products be known and famous to the consumer. Pantene is lucky because many companies are distant to have Kris Aquino but lucky for them that they able to have the top endorser in the Philippines. According to John Morley† Even good opinions are worth very little unless we hold them in the broad, intelligent, and spacious way.† Kris Aquino being on the top endorser in Philippines because she is completely believable in every endorsement she has and when she is on air what is happening is real. The researchers conclude that advertising is very common in any business. The researchers wrap up that every business must be advertised for them to be known and for them to promote their product . It is not easy to have an advertisement there are many tricky things may occur before having an advertisement because advertisement is not easy to produce, also it costs a lot. Before having advertisement the company must be ready financially. Approval of a brand by a star fosters a sense of trust that brand among the target audience. This is especially true in case of new product. Celebrities ensure attention of the target group by breaking the clutter of  advertisements and making the advertisement and the brand more noticeable. A celebrity’s preference for a brand gives out a persuasive message and hence, because the celebrity’s benefiting from the brand, the consumer will also benefit. For anybody who has ever tuned in to television, watched a movie, or driven down major thoroughfares, it’s hard not to notice the numerous advertisements that Kris Aquino has. From food products to housewares, the host of the top-rated daily lifestyle show Kris TV is definitely on top of the list when it comes to being a trusted endorser. It cannot be denied that Kris Aquino is the top endorser in the Philippines that having her as an endorser is really effective to endorse a certain product. And despite of her busy schedule she assures the she was able to give time to her fans and to product that that she is endorsing. Kris Aquino is the kind of celebrity endorser that if what she is endorsing she guarantee that when you use the product she endorse you will not be disappointed, because people know that Kris Aquino is very choosy when it comes to her advertisements and she is very demanding in all the things that is wrong for her. Lastly, the Pantene product were very lucky because they able to have Ms. Kris Aquino to endorse their product and the researchers conclude that having Kris Aquino will help the Pantene to boost and increase their sales because of Kris Aquino popularity to women and many women believe in her despite of her negative attitudes, still she is the most effective endorser in the Philippines. References Almo, N. (2011 October 04). Kris Aquino on being an effective endorser: â€Å"What you see is what you get.† Philippine entertainment portal. Retrived from http://www.pep.ph A, G., & Berkman, H. (1980). Advertsing: Concepts and Strategies. NY:Random House,G43. Barnes, B., & Schultz. (1995). Strategic Advertising Campaigns. Illinois, NTC Publishing Group, sch.8. Belch, S., & Belch, M. (2001). Advertsing and Promotion. NY:McGraw Hill Companies Inc.,p.41. Betagun, K. (2005, August 13). Maximizing sales Productivity. Business World, B.4(S3). Betina, F., & Campbell, M. (2005). Media and Culture: an introduction to mass communication.NY:Bedford St. Martins, c15. Boorstin, D. (2012 March 23). Philippine Celebrity Endorsement: The Good, The Bad and TheUgly. Pilipino Kuno? Retrieved from http:// www.pilipinokuno.com Boorstin, D. (N.A). Impact of Celebrity endorsement on a brand. Chili breeze. Retrieved formhttp://www.chilibreeze.com/articles celeb-endor.asp. Cahambing, C. (2000 October). A profile of Dumaguete City Business and the businessperception of the Impact of the emerging E-commerce on their organization. SillimanUniversity.Dumaguete City. (C11, c.1). Felisilda, F. R. (2001). Marketing strategies of selected corporations in the Philippines.p.48.Silliman University, Dumaguete City. Fowles, J. (1996). Advertising And Popular Culture. London: SAGE Publication, Inc., F82. Joyner, A. (2010 February). Sales Marketing, show as what can you do using videos to boastsales. Inc., pp.81-89. Kanter, R. M. (2011). How great companies think differently. Harvard Business Review, pp.71-73. Manaquil, M. (2011 July24). Why Kris Aquino is the number one endorser. The PhilippineStar. Retrieved from http://www.philstar.com Manuel, S. (2008 May 22). Kris Aquino endorsers Pantene Pr o V Hair fall Control. The Gloss.Retrieved from http://www.thegloss.com Manuzon, M. (2007 June). Living in the Multimedia Age. Philippine Business, pp.24-25. Ochoa, R.A. (2010 January). Honey-making strategies. Entrepreneur Philippines, 10(109), 21. Ong, I. (2012 April 17). From Advertising to Marketing Communication. Philippine DailyInquirer, p.41. Pe, R. (2012 July 27). The state of advertising industry. Philippine Daily Inquirer, 2792290,p.B2-2. Plank, K. (2012 May). Under Armour’s founder one learning to leverage celebrityendorsement. Harvard Business Review, pp.45-48. Popeil, R., & Graham, J. ( 1995). The Salesman of the Century. NY: Bantam Double DellPublishing Group Inc., p.81. Ramos, N. (2011 July 25). Kris regains number one spot in 2011 top endorsers list. ManilaBulletin. Retrieved from http://www.mb.com.ph Torre, N. (2011 September 8). Celebrity Power† put to good use. Philippine Daily Inquirer,p.43. Untivero, R. (2012 August 13). Maximizing Sales Productivit y. Business World, p.4/s3.

Characteristics of a Good Computer

CAVENDISH UNIVERSITY UGANDA STUDENT NAME: AKANKWASA JOHNSON ( 077/0702-978405) STUDENT ID:02/02615/124400 COURSEBEHS LECTURER: MR. MENYA SHAKIR MODULE: INFORMATION SYSTEMS AND TECHNOLOGY MODULE CODE: BIT 110 ASSIGNMENT NUMBER: 01 DATE ISSUED: 4TH /11/2012 DUE DATE: 11 /11/2012 ASSIGNMENT BRIEF: 1. Discuss the factors you would consider while buying a computer. 2. How has information networks solved the problems of an organization? GUIDE TO STUDENTS 1. Maximum 2 pages word processed excluding cover and reference pages. 2. Use Times New Roman 3. Font Size should be 12 4. 1. 5 Line Spacing . For referencing purposes, use the Harvard Author-Date System. Instructions to Students 1. This form must be attached to the front of your assignment. 2. The assignment must be handed in without fail by the due date. QUESTION. 1: Discuss factors you would consider while buying a computer. Solution According to Prof. More Manojkumar, (2009), various factors that would be considered when buying compute rs are discussed here bellow; 1. Processor Speed: A computer is a very fast device which can perform the amount of work that a human being can do in an entire year in few seconds.This therefore means that a good powerful computer should be capable of performing several billion arithmetic operations per second. The speed of a computer measure is in microseconds (10-6), Nanoseconds (10-9) and picoseconds (10-12). 2. Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer is principally highly considered; and the degree of accuracy of a particular computer depends upon its design however Errors can occur in a computer due to human rather than technological weaknesses. 3. Memory (Power of Remembering): A good Computer should have sound brain (Fast memory, 2 GB+) but unlike human (Man) beings.A computer can store data and information and recalled as long as one requires it for any numbers of years because of its secondary storage capability. This means data and information can be retrieved as long as desir ed by the user and can be recalled, as when required. The information recalled would be as accurate as on the day when it was fed to the computer. 4. Diligence: A good Computer should be diligent unlike human beings. This means that a computer should be free from dullness and lack of concentration.It can continuously work for hours without creating any error human beings in doing regular types of jobs, which requires great accuracy. Computer can perform the number of calculation with exactly the same accuracy and speed as the first one. 5. Versatility: Versatility is a most important characteristic which a good computer should have hence the capacity to perform completely different type of work. For example one may use a computer to prepare payroll slips where there is a lot of veracity, may be used for inventory management or to prepare electric bills.A good computer should therefore be capable of performing almost any task, if the task can be reduced to series of logical steps. 6. Automation: Good Computers should be automatic electronic machines however; computer being machines can not start themselves without human interventions. They cannot go out to find their own problems and solutions because they have to be instructed. Hence the automation eases the operation of the user. 7. Communication/ Connectivity: Most computers today have the capability of communicating with other computers. We can connect two or more computers by a communication device such as modem.These computers can share data, instructions, and information. The connected computer are called network. 8. No Feelings: Good Computers should have no feelings, no emotions like human heart and soul since they are machines. Computers cannot make such judgments on their own because their judgment is based on the instructions given to them in form of programs that are written by us. 9. Reliability; Most consumers are looking for a computer that are reliable, yet if the product is on the market then it is bound to have undergone and passed the numerous technological tests before release.In conclusion therefore; all computers should meet these characteristics but it just depends upon the efficiency of the users, their computer skills as to whether they remain satisfied with their purchase. 1 QESTION 2: How has information networks solved the problems of an organization? SOLUTION Network information systems link pockets of highly specialized data to provide efficient access. Computer-based information systems have been in widespread use since the 1990s in industry, non-profit organizations and government agencies.These systems have solved a number of problems in organizations in the following ways; 1. Provided fast access to databases of personnel information, reference reading, best practices and on-the-job training, and are easily customizable to meet an organization's needs. With the Internet and technology boom of the early 21st century, use of computer-based information netw orks is growing faster each year. 2. Ensured Data Centrality; Access to data via a computer network information system is central, providing a â€Å"one-stop† location to find and access pertinent computer data.Most large-scale businesses and organizations use some sort of central database to manage user information, manage advertisement lists, store product information and keep track of orders. Examples of central database solutions are MySQL, Postgre SQL or Microsoft SQL database solutions, coupled with custom software which provides user interfaces. 3. Improved Information Coverage; Information coverage is a huge advantage for any organization, because having vast amounts of useful data from every different department streamlines access and increases productivity. For users, having access to a networked nformation system is analogous to having a digital library of shared knowledge hence; Central information systems provide organizations with the advantages of having large amounts of data, covering many different fields, all accessible via an information access with larger databases of academic and professional research, such as Google Scholar, to provide even more information capability to personnel. 4. Ensured access to efficiency; Efficiency of access is a crucial advantage to networked information systems in organization over more traditional information management systems, such as paper cataloging and filing.Computer-based information systems catalog and file documents in a set logical way, making data access very efficient and fast. Data can be manually categorized, and filters created to automatically file documents that match certain patterns. This increases employee productivity time by allowing workers to focus more on the task at hand rather than filing paperwork. 5. Extensibility; Computer-based information systems are completely extensible and customizable to an organization's needs.Upon installation, customized computer information syste ms use configuration files that are tailor-made to an organization's needs to file and categorize data. Computer software engineers frequently design custom database interfaces and information storage/recovery systems for enterprise clients. As a company grows, modifications and additions to this filing configuration allow easy extensibility. Computer information systems are not limited in scale or possibility. They are uniquely designed for maximum organizational benefit for each customer.In conclusion therefore; Information net works have greatly helped organizations grow and efficiently deliver the services to achieve specific goals. 2 REFERENCES 1. http://www. ehow. com/list_6748808_advantages-computer_based-information-systems. html#ixzz2Bu35Ixvk 2. Ronald Golooba, (2012); Lecture Notes for year one students a cohort 15, Cavendish University Uganda. 3. en. kioskea. net/contents/pc/ordinateur-portable. php3 – Cached. 4. Prof. More Manojkumar, (2009), Characteristics of co mputer systems. 5. wiki. answers. com †º †¦ †º Operating Systems – Cached

The U.S. Cities in the Late 1800’s: Major Problems and Their Solving

The cities have played an important role in the development of the United States since the founding of the nation. Many historians agree that the Revolution itself and the rise of the Confederation of 13 independent states were nurtured exactly in the cities of America (Green, 1957, p. 2). Urban life in the late 19th century, perhaps more largely than today, when rural isolation has been broken down by the modern miracles of transportation and communication, formed the substance of American civilization (Light, 1983, p. 96).City enterprise, backed by city money, looking for new products to sell and new markets to sell to, was a powerful force in peopling the country (Jackson & Schultz, 1972a, p. 6). The purpose of this study is to explore the major problems which the American cities faced in the late nineteenth century and how their dwellers resolved them. Toward this end we will discuss the tendency of fast cities’ growing in late 1800s and in what way it conditioned the urba n problems, analyze the economical and social factors contributing to emergence of such problems, and consider the successful examples of their solving.The city is justly regarded as the handmaiden of industrialization. By 1890, a century after the first national census, the number of city dwellers was 139 times larger than the 1790 figure, although the American population as a whole had multiplied only sixteen fold (Jackson & Schultz, 1972a, p. 1). The influence of cities on American life had been mounting steadily throughout the 19th century. With land everywhere available and transport the chief problem to consider, commercial centers had arisen where good harbors provided safe anchorage for ocean-going ships.Due to this tendency, in 1980s the cities scattered along the coast were necessarily the focus of national economic life (Green, 1957, p. 242). In 1890 the nation's population was already 1/3 urban and the population in the Northeast was well over 1/2 urban. With 2 million i nhabitants New York was the 2nd largest city in the world, and Chicago and Philadelphia each contained about a million inhabitants. Places like Minneapolis, Denver, and Seattle, which hardly existed in 1840, had become major regional metropolises (Goodall & Sprengel, 1975, p. 2).The enormous growth of American cities at that time is attributed largely to the quickening pace of the industrial revolution which harnessed technological innovation and scientific inquiry to more productive uses of energy and new uses of materials, but also to the political revolution which enshrined individual rights and democratic process in law, and the demographic revolution which increased the size of the population.Organized means of production led to larger factory complexes and to larger urban centers; in turn, the building of homes and offices and streets and sewers in those centers fueled the industrialization trend (Jackson & Schultz, 1972b, p. 177). Such rash economic development and fast growi ng of urban population stipulated emergence of many serious problems in urban communities not known earlier. Poverty of the city-dwellers, overcrowding of housing, transportation and environmental pollution were among the most critical problems (Light, 1983).Rising crime rates, increasing pauperism, and spiraling juvenile delinquency signaled a moral dislocation in cities undergoing commercial and industrial transformation. Swarms of foreign immigrants challenged their capacity to accommodate and assimilate newcomers, as did the influx of white and black native migrants from the countryside and small towns. Everywhere the orderly patterns of existence appeared interrupted; the cities seemed to be overwhelmed by the rush of social change (Ward, 1972, p. 164).Cities lacking institutionalized systems of orderly government (police departments, fire departments, centralized governmental bureaucracies) had to forge new tools to hammer out an urban discipline (Schultz, 1972, p. 308). A gro wing and ever more diverse population; new industrial demands on the time and energy of citizens; cities bursting at the seams of their former boundaries; and social institutions like the family and the church dissolving in the heat of economic progress – all these disparate elements of urban life had to be adjusted and accommodated to each other.Of the various disorders in urban life, the most evident was poverty. To resolve this problem many city leaders championed education to secure social order in a disorderly age. While American cities always had known the poor, urban leaders of the past had believed in the transience of poverty. But in the late 19th century, these attitudes shifted dramatically. City officials began to suspect, that urban poverty was not a passing phenomenon but a permanent condition.A growing number of urban paupers presaged a day when cities might be divided sharply along class lines; when foreign indigents might threaten the hegemony of native Ameri cans; and when public financial resources might be devoted more to charitable relief, to workhouses, and to prisons than to other needed public services. Many urban leaders saw in public education a form of social insurance against a possible tomorrow when the poor might dominate city life (Schultz, 1972).The problems of poor city-dwellers were intensified by lack of sufficient habitation. During the three generations of sustained and heavy European immigration into the United States, which preceded the immigration restriction legislation of the early 1920s, congested ghettoes of foreign immigrants assumed substantial dimensions within the residential structures of American cities. Most immigrants settled near the sources of unskilled employment, and the majority of newcomers concentrated on the margins of the emerging central business districts. To solve this problem vacated houses were converted into tenements and rooming houses, while vacant lots and rear yards were filled with c heap new structures (Ward, 1972, p. 164).One more solution for this housing problem was found in so called filter process that is creation of vacancies in standard housing for families of lower incomes. Filter process describes the way in which the normal housing market should work. As new housing is built, families who can afford to pay more vacate older units which then become available to families of a somewhat lower income who are on their way up the economic ladder and who in turn move out of still less desirable quarters (Green, 1957, p. 138).Another vital problem was transportation. Associated with urban population rise was a nascent suburban movement; many wealthy families gave up residential locations close to the noisy and crowded marketplaces, opting instead for houses in smaller peripheral towns. These suburbanites maintained their connection with the larger population center by water ferry and steam railroad, or they assumed the expense of providing their own carriages to conduct business and friendships in the city. Thus the residential movement away from the city center and into suburban areas predates the development of mass transit (Green, 1957).Out of the period of dynamic urban growth between 1820 and 1860 came the development of the omnibus, the first mass-transit innovation used in the U. S. At first, the conveyance was merely a long-distance stagecoach used within the city or an enlarged version of a hackney coach. Within a decade, though, it had taken a fairly standard form: a rectangular box on wheels containing two lengthwise seats for from twelve to twenty passengers (Jackson & Schultz, 1972b, p. 180).The conducted study proved that whether a given city grew and prospered or stagnated depended on its locational advantages and on the foresight of its civic and business leaders. The speed growth of the U. S. cities was stipulated by the industrial revolution which encouraged cities’ prosperity, but at the same time conditioned th e problems they faced such as overcrowding, poverty and lack of local transportation facilities. Anyway, technological innovations and wise ruling of municipal authorities allowed solving these problems and achieve sufficient balance in the cities’ development.ReferencesGoodall, L. E. , & Sprengel, D. P. (1975). The American Metropolis. Columbus, OH: Merrill. Green, C. M. (1957).American Cities in the Growth of the Nation. New York: John De Graff. Jackson, K. T. , & Schultz, S. K. (1972a).The City in American History: Introduction. In K. T. Jackson & S. K. Schultz (Eds. ), Cities in American History (pp. 1-8). New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Jackson, K. T. , & Schultz, S. K. (1972b).Immigration, Migration, and Mobility, 1865-1920. In K. T. Jackson & S. K. Schultz (Eds.), Cities in American History (pp. 177-184).New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Light, I. (1983). Cities in World Perspective. New York: Macmillan. Schultz, S. K. (1972).Breaking the Chains of Poverty: Public Education in Bos ton, 1800-1860. In K. T. Jackson & S. K. Schultz (Eds. ), Cities in American History (pp. 306-323).New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Ward, D. (1972). The Emergence of Central Immigrant Ghettoes in American Cities, 1840-1920. In K. T. Jackson & S. K. Schultz (Eds. ), Cities in American History (pp. 164-176). New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Preparing a contract administration plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Preparing a contract administration plan - Essay Example The company adopts contract administration plan. This plan, as implemented by the company includes a series of measures undertaken to ensure that contracts execution are monitored for effective performance. One of the approaches adopted by the company towards contract administration is a well established â€Å"contract management system,† a system that records information about contracts for effective management. In order to maximize its capacity to manage data on processes and transactions, the organization applies a combination of data base applications that include â€Å"Access, FoxPro and SQL† (Harmon and Stephan, 2001, P. 2). The three systems have historically been incorporated into the organizational management to ensure continuity and familiarity in management processes. The organization has also implemented contract administration plan through ‘well-managed’ schedules. Adoption of electronic approach by the company has particularly facilitated an efficient contract management plan. Through this approach, the company ensures predefined and planned undertakings in executing contracts. The management schedule has also facilitated proper administration of processes that are undertaken in pursuing contracts. Similarly, the organization uses schedule management to identify anomalies in time plans and to initiate corrective measures. Monitoring and evaluation of proposed schedules and a comparison with the actual schedule has also been a critical tool for the company towards administration of contract plans (Harmon and Stephan, 2001) Proficiency in managing financial accounts and obligations in deliverables is another approach that the company applies towards administration of contract plan. By tracking consideration in agreements, the company avoids litigations for failure to meet its obligations in time. It has also helped the company to monitor and

Pressure Ulcer Prevention Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Pressure Ulcer Prevention - Research Paper Example For this coordination to be achieved, high-quality prevention requires operational practices and organizational culture that promote communication and teamwork, as well as personal expertise. Consequently, enhancement in pressure ulcer prevention requires a system that is aimed at making the required changes Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to identify some of the changes that are needed in the Pressure Ulcer Prevention Practices in Nursing (Sullivan, 2013). Since pressure ulcer care is difficult, efforts to develop prevention strategies for pressure ulcer needs a system approach that will encompass organizational change (Kuhn, 2013). It becomes very difficult bring a change of any type within an organization especially when it involves several, simultaneous changes in communication, workflow, and decision-making as are required in preventing pressure ulcer. Inability to evaluate the readiness of the organization for the change at various levels may lead to unanticipated problems during the implementation. Change in Pressure Ulcer Prevention Practice assists the nurses and their organization to discover the readiness and come up with action steps to develop it if necessary. Making changes to practice requires one first to understand the existing practices. With the view that pressure ulcer prevention has completely taken new dimension is a clear indication that there are more than one apparent performance teething troubles in this place. There are gaps of various forms, between present best practices and real work practices due to lack of proper coordination among various clinical units, unequal access to existing source of information and disparity in staff knowledge. In addition, there are gaps between identified practices and real. There have never been prior efforts to advance pressure ulcer prevention or care within the organization. The organization does not have a certified wound care nurse and does not involve physicians in wound care.

MARKETING COMUNICATION- INTERNAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION Essay

MARKETING COMUNICATION- INTERNAL MARKETING COMMUNICATION - Essay Example In order to be productive, the vision of employees must be in sync with the company’s vision and goals. Internal marketing communication is an effort by the top management to win employees support in their marketing strategy which in turn results in greater employee effectiveness. Internal marketing is based on the philosophy that employees are the internal customers of an organization and hence, it is necessary to promote the firm, its policies, mission, vision, products and strategies to the employees of the firm. Employees and business partners are called internal customers because they interact within the organization in order to generate long term value to the company. In order to be effective, a firm must accurately segment the internal customers (employees) according to their own buying behaviour. Employees can be divided into three segments: supporters (who support the internal strategy), neutral ( who neither support, nor oppose the strategy) and opposers ( who outrig ht refuse to or are against the strategy). Internal marketing communication aims to identify all the three segments of employees within an organization and then target all the three segments effectively in order to achieve a corporate culture comprising of empowered employees, equitable reward and recognition system and an overall good organizational structure that promotes learning, total quality management and business re-engineering. Internal marketing communication also plays a role in the three P’s of marketing strategy, push, pull and profile. The most important role played by internal communication is to decide upon which strategy to use for the company. Ans. Internal marketing communication plays a key role in internal marketing by communicating internal information within all departments in order to achieve organizational objectives. It aims to achieve the following purposes in an organization: It creates

Toyota Motor Corporation Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Toyota Motor Corporation - Research Paper Example Apart from that, TMC remains ahead on contemporary concerns dealing with additional corporate conscientiousness of the earth, as well as environmental issues. Apart from launching the production of modern vehicles, TMC engages itself in the manufacture of the IMV Project in India, Argentina and South Africa, for the creation, as well as identification, of more efficient and productive supply systems on the global scale. TMC is much more than only a car company, residing in a number of geographical sites, working to promoting vehicle production while, at the same time, promoting continuing advancement in the mobility’s experience, striving to improve a society (Young, 2007). TMC gets credit for being the leading company in market shares in Australia while, at the same time, commanding an impressive part of the United States’ market by accounting for 1.61B shares out, regarding a market cap of not less than 207.44 Billion. This is in supplement of momentous market shares in Europe, Africa, together with the fast-developing market presence in Southeast Asia. Therefore, TMC is on its way to turning into the largest, while, at the same time, the most successful auto manufacturer globally, thereby quickly proceeding in outdoing its extensively challenging competitors (Rittenberg, 2011). The primary executives in TMC appear to be making it a lifetime investment compared to the turnover rate, as well as attrition of various corporations. Undoubtedly, this is partly an attribute of the family-leaning, team-driven and at the same time ethically-motivated environment emulated by TMC; apart from that, there is a notable and impressive level of participation exhibited by executives at the level of management. Fostering authentically reciprocal, dynamic, highest officials, tend to be profoundly engaged in all the facets of the company, in most cases presiding over a number of aspects, while always endorsing the underlying ethical principles of the business phil osophy. An instance of this esteemed individual commitment is portrayed by Mr. Suzuki who is the Chief Financial Officer, while performing several other duties like Chief Business Development Officer, as well as Chief Accounting Officer; the same situation is with other relevant Toyota personnel. This degree of commitment, along with the participation appears to slot in the trickle effect, pushing itself to the highest degrees, as well as working its way down. Conversely, the managers, together with personnel beneath the Board of Directors get encouragement while they are expected to be involved in inputting and creating improvements, rather than simply being the rubber stamps to the decisions delegated to them. As a result, the appropriate executives embraces such critique, utilizing this constructive criticism in the creation of a better product, advanced work environment, as well as improved production approaches (Plunkett, 2006). Unlike the majority of American companies, TMC ac knowledges the value found in valuing employees considering that, eventually, it is their performance along with the motivation that is capable of making or breaking the production together with the financial success of any organization. However, there are crises, such as

Multiple Linear Regression Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Multiple Linear Regression - Assignment Example del is linear in the sense that every predictor variable is either a constant or the product of a parameter (ÃŽ ²Ã¢â‚¬â„¢s) and a predictor variable (x’s). The researchers further investigated whether the multiple linear regression models provided a better description of the relationship between the wave modes than would a linear regression model with only a linear predictor. In the model, y (the response) is the ISOw (westward moving intraseasonal modes) and x (the predictor variable) is the ISOe (eastward moving intraseasonal modes). ISOe is further broken down to into more variables by applying power functions of the predictor variable to create a polynomial. Higher power terms are included in the model in order to seek evidence of any improvements in how they increase the accuracy of how wave modes are displayed. This selection is arbitrary and purely based on the assumption that it may lead to the development of a better model for depicting the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. Each of the introduced independent variables is then evaluated for significance (at the 5% level of significance) in order to establish its relevance to the entire model. Each item with a coefficient whose p-value falls below the 0.05 (5%) threshold is considered as being statistically significant. Such variables are retained in the model. The test of significance was repeated several times using the bootstrapping technique. A^sub s, T^ = (X^sup T^^sub t^X^sub t^)^sup -1^X^sup T^^sub t^Y^sub s,t+T^ by solving for a specified lag for the regression coefficients. In this equation, â€Å"T† is the matrix transpose, â€Å"a† the coefficients, and s the grid points (more easily interpreted as the lags). The regression equation involving the nonlinear terms is then tested for suitability against the ordinary linear regression. The model that appears to explain more variance in the response is deemed better.

Questions in Communication & Social research Essay - 1

Questions in Communication & Social research - Essay Example t all the different reasons that explain a particular course of action, whereas nomothetic explanation looks at all the different factors behind a particular course of action. Stating that their paycheck was not direct deposited on time, but a day late, that HR failed to include holiday pay on the check when it was deposited, and that they will not be able to correct it for another two days are examples of idiographic explanations to a company as to why a bill may be late. Looking at the proximity of a job to a place of residence, how much they pay versus how much may be saved in travel time, and the amount of work that will need to be done when compared to a person’s current job all fall under the blanket of nomothetic reasoning. A paradigm is â€Å"the fundamental model or frame of reference we use to organize our observations and reasoning† (Babbie, p. 33). There are many different types of paradigms present in our world today; including the postmodern paradigm which suggests only experience is real, scientific paradigms such as Newtonian mechanics and Einstein’s theory of relativity, macrotheory which focuses on the big pictures in society, and microtheory which focus on interactions at the individual level and while these are not the only paradigms covered in the text itself, these are some of the main paradigms discussed. Paradigms are important because they not only offer a variety of different viewpoints, but they also offer certain insights into the field of study being referenced. Paradigms are â€Å"neither true nor false; as ways of looking, they are only more or less useful† (Babbie, p. 34). Every paradigm makes assumptions about the nature of reality, and offers a different way of looking at the world and the societies in it; each of these different paradigms offers a new branch of research, and new methods and concepts to be investigated. They offer a different way of seeing the world, which in turn can shed light on the resolution of different

The Human Nature Of Christ Essay Example for Free

The Human Nature Of Christ Essay Obvious to all was the need for a saviour. The Gentiles needed a Saviour but the Jews wanted a King that would restore the Kingdom to Israel. Men waited eagerly for divine intervention in the ugly course of human history that has been marred by series of wars and perpetual ‘coups and countercoups’. From the Assyrians, Medo-Persians, the Greek, the Babylonians to the Romans Caesars who laid heavy tax burden on the inhabitants of their territory. Men and women, elders and children earnestly longed for the salvation of man from the shackles of Kingdom leaders and the bondage of sin. Prophecies had being made about this Saviour for the Jews and the whole world: in the synagogues and temples, these were read to them on the Sabbath and many knew that a man would save. (Isaiah 9:6). They went to the Baptism of John with the true assurance and trust in that ministry that announced and prepared the heart and minds of all for the Saviour’s arrival. They knew about Him. They had heard readings about Him in the Scripture and they drew closer to His formal appearing. John the Baptist, made an excellent entrance in the scene preparing their totality to receive their Saviour. (John1: 6-9) But their interpretation of this message was diverse. They asked: When would he arrive? What would He look like? How would He come? How would He save Israel and the world? Soon, the Incarnate Word and Saviour arrived through the Virgin birth. Although born in a manger, He was the Christ, the Messiah. He had a mother Mary and his earthly father, Joseph was a man of integrity with listening hears for God and willing heart to obey. He lived in a family. He even learnt the trade of Joseph: carpentry. He played with the children in the courtyard and so, they knew him as the brother of James and John. Their neighbors in Nazareth saw him a number of times assisting Joseph with orders. He, ate, traveled, and wept, felt hungry, agonized deeply, during his ministry that lasted slightly over three years. Then, he died a shameful death like that of a thief on the Cross. He was also equal with God: He was God himself. He was both Human and divine, but now with a resurrected and unblemished body and seated at the right hand of the Father. He is the Advocate of those who believe in and have confessed His Lordship. He is the Impartial Judge that would judge all men according to the works they have done in the body. (Revelations 22:12) THE NATURE OF MAN Man is a tripartite being with three entities in one: the spirit, soul and body. Different theologians over the years have spent time, engaged in research to fully comprehend the elusive nature of the dichotomy of soul and spirit. Of these, it is important to note that three entities that make a total man are entrenched in His nature. This understanding is important in coming to a reasonable and logical conclusion on the humanity of Christ. Man is a spirit being, he lives in a body and has a soul. The spirit is the quintessence of a man: it is this part that has connection to the spiritual world. It is the core of the living soul. The spirit of a man is the avenue for contact with the spirit of God. A man without this spirit is dead: He is like the molded man without the breath of God. â€Å"In your soulical parts are at least three dominant areas or ‘worlds’. The first world of the soul is the mind, your thought centre. The Second tremendous element within you is your emotional life. The third world of the soul is the area of decision, your willpower† (Sumrall, 1970) The soul of man is made up of mind, emotions and will. These three are interwoven and work in quick succession and sometimes overlap. The mind avails man the opportunity to think; emotions, the ability to feel; and willpower, the capacity to decide and be true to such choices. The Body includes the anatomy of real human body. This is subject to the outputs of the soul. It includes all the parts of the body: eyes, nose, hands, legs, head, abdomen, thorax and neck etc which are used in fulfilling intended desires. THE FALL OF MAN At the fall of man in the Garden of Eden, man experienced a spiritual death: the spirit was cut off from its direct and perpetual contact with the Spirit of God. â€Å"In the beginning God created the heaven and the earth. And the earth was without from and void; and darkness was upon the face of the deep. And the Spirit of God moved upon the face of the waters† (Genesis 1: 1, 2) In this vein, man was ‘without form and void’, and darkness was upon his soul. He had lost contact with heaven. He sold his birthright to the devil and was burdened by this darkness. Already within him was already planted a worship tendency. However, God was far from him to worship. As a result, the soul was placed perpetually under the influence of darkness, under the tutelage of the devil and his cohorts. The activities and outputs of the soul antagonized the program of God. Man’s heart was turned against his creator. This necessitated a Saviour to restore man back to his Eden position. PATHWAY OF REDEMPTION Throughout the Old Testament, God sent and used his chosen prophets to teach, warn and instruct the world. A hallmark of the restoration pathway available at that period was the sacrificing of animals as atonement for sins. God has been interested in man’s salvation and his unfailing love made the offering of this sacrifice acceptable as penance for evil acts. It was important to hear God and do his will. In order for this to be achieved, there has to be an entrance into the Presence of God in holies of holies of the temple. Preparations were made so that appearance before God was holy and acceptable. Until this is done, it is difficult to communicate with Heaven. Priests were prepared for this task. Everyone was also involved, having being purged by the blood of the sacrificed animals. THE CLIMAX OF REDEMPTION Man needed more than the blood of goats and ram: God’s love was expressed perpetually through His prophets over the years throughout the days of the New Testament. God shows His Love towards us that while we were still sinners, Christ died for all. To show His love towards us, God sent His Only Begotten in the fullness of time to come and show man the true and only way to live for their Creator and fulfill the Intended Purpose He had for them. (John 3:16) Before the resurrection, Jesus Christ who lived among first with His family and later with His chosen Disciples, demonstrated to man the lifestyle that is truly acceptable to God; He submitted to the father’s will at every and all situations because the Father and Son are one. He did what He heard from the Father . He had embedded in His person the Divine Nature which accomplished supernatural things on Earth. He showed to man the depth and strength of God’s love. THE DUALITY OF CHRIST’S NATURE Let’s start this with the Nicene Creed of 325: ‘We believe in one God, the Father Almighty, and Maker of all things visible and invisible, and in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, begotten of the Father [the only-begotten; that is, of the essence of the Father, God of God], Light of Light, very God of very God, begotten, not made, being of one substance with the Father by whom all things were made [both in heaven and on earth]; who for us men, and for our salvation, came down and was incarnate and was made man; he suffered, and the third day he rose again, ascended into heaven; from thence he shall come to judge the quick and the dead, and in the Holy Ghost. † Jesus Christ was divine and human; He expressed His Divinity in diverse capacities: He forgave sins; was omnipotent healing the sick and all that were oppressed of the Devil; was asserted as Messiah by His disciples, was omniscient knowing all things including the intents of the Scribes and Pharisees before they uttered statements; was omnipresent both on Earth and in the presence of the father in heaven; walked on water against the Law of Gravity. He was accused of blasphemy because He claimed to have existed before Abraham (Matthew 26:63) This Claim that Jesus Christ is God was affirmed throughout the writings of the Apostles in the New Testament: In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God. (John 1:1). He was described as the Creator of the Universe, the soon coming king and the Impartial that would judge the whole world, attributes that are totally divine and belong to God. (Hebrews 1). This was not refuted by Him when Thomas addressed Him as ‘My Lord and My God. (John 20:28). This confirmed His Messianic reality and the indwelling Divine nature. HIS HUMAN NATURE â€Å"Seeing then that we have a great high priest, that is passed into the heavens, Jesus the Son of God, let us hold our profession. For we have not an high priest which can not be touched with the feelings of our infirmities; but was in all points tempted like as we are, yet without sin. † (Hebrews 4: 14, 15 ) â€Å"And the Word was made flesh and dwelt among us, (and we beheld His glory, the glory of the only Begotten of the Father,), full of grace and truth† (John 1: 14) â€Å"Let this mind also be in you which was also in Christ Jesus, who being in the form of God thought it not robbery to be equal with God But made Himself of no reputation and took upon Him the form of a servant, and was made in the likeness of men: and being found in the as a man, He humbled Himself, and became obedient to death, even the death of the Cross. Wherefore God also has highly exalted Him, and given Him a name which is above every name That at the name of Jesus every knee should bow, of things in heaven, and things in Heaven, and things in earth, and things under the Earth. And that every tongue should confess that Jesus is Lord, to the glory of God the Father. † (Philippians 2: 5-11). With the two verses sited above, it is sufficient to come to a reasonable conclusion that Jesus is the Christ, the Messiah, the Saviour of the Jews and the Gentiles: that Jesus was and is God, the Word of the Father incarnated in the flesh, made like us, lived like us; that Jesus felt all we felt: He was hungry and the fig tree suffered for lack of fruits to quench the hunger. He wept for His friend, Lazarus (John 10:35). He felt the heavy burden of agony in Gethsemane and Golgotha. He felt rejected and forsaken on the Christ; that Jesus had the form of man: He was man, everything man. Although, it was shame for Him to leave a glorious abode in heaven and take the shape of a fallen man, but He had to do to correct the errors of Adam and birth in all men who believe in Him, a new heart and a living soul. He proved to the Devil that God’s Love is His nature and reigns supreme; that the God is both full of Love yet Just, that He is kind, yet impartial, that He is good, yet fearless. Christ Jesus, the Son, took on the form of man to save him. He humbled himself, yet did not deny His Divinity. He Humbled Him even unto the shameful death of the Cross. And the Cross, His death and ultimately His resurrection confirmed His Purpose on the earth. He died and rose: rose up by the power of the Spirit, and so became a quickening spirit. Christ Jesus rose up proving beyond reasonable doubt that He could save man. The Apostles saw this and were strengthened in faith. The Devil and death could not hold Him down like all others who had gone before Him. He won the battle and rose up, and now is seated at the right hand of the Father. He is seated in the place of power and authority, the angle of the Judge of the World. (Ephesians 1:20-23) Let all who believe in Him and live today say He is God. Let all declare that He was man, but now with a resurrected body, seated as the Head of the Church. Let all man proclaim Him as Lord for He is Lord. No greater evidence exists than the writings of eyewitnesses of this Glory. Let all men declare Jesus Christ as Hosanna, to Him is all the glory, honor, power and Majesty. (Revelations 4:11). Having examined different approaches available both in medieval and contemporary times about the Human nature of Christ, I come to this conclusion: the Apostles knew who they believe; they experienced his power and glory and were convinced about His Divinity and Human Nature. They preached Christ as the risen Lord, and even sacrificed their lives for the cause. The significance of the Waiting at the Upper room can not be overemphasized. They obeyed and received power. (Acts 1:8). They were bold and courageous because He that dwelt in them was greater than all opposing forces in the world. They got an indispensable witness, the Spirit of Light that showed them the Past, led them in their writings and comforted them in their times of distress. He quickened their mortal bodies and conformed them to the glorious Image of the Christ. Having fought a good fight of faith, they won, even at the death post. That victory is evidenced by believers all over the world who now declare that Jesus is Lord, to God’s Glory.

Theories of Firm Internationalisation

Theories of Firm Internationalisation Firms internationalisation decisions can be driven by various motives, taking this into account, discuss in particular the choice of a firm of how to internationalise its production activities in terms of a trade off between ownership and market transactions. After the World War II, there has been rapid growth in international trade in both goods and services, resulting in various transactions across national borders for the purpose of satisfying the needs of individuals and organisations. The result of this global competition has forced organisations to expand their business by finding out new markets at home and foreign countries making them ‘Transnational firms. Dicken (2007) defines Transnational Corporations (TNC) as â€Å"A firm that has power to co-ordinate and control operations in more than one country, even if it does not own them†. Rugman and Hodgetts, 2003 says Multinational corporations, defined as â€Å"A company headquarter in one country but having operations in other countries†. The significance of TNC lies mainly in its ability to co-ordinate and control different transactions within transnational production networks, ability to take advantage of distribution factors of production and ability to be fl exible in locations. The growing TNCs led to various patterns and trends in international business like rapid growth in world trade and investment, cross border mergers and acquisitions resulting in the process of Internationalization. Internationalization is the process of increasing involvement in international operations across national borders which comprises both changed perspectives and positions. (Buckley and Ghauri, 1999) Internationalization is one potential strategy that is being used increasingly by business firms to maximise size of the firm, increase their profitability, increasing their market share and becoming industry leader. It is a major attribute of the current strategy process of most business firms which determines the ongoing development and change in the international firm in terms of values, scope, principles, business ideas, action orientation, nature of work and converging norms. The internationalization dimension is related to all these aspects of the strategy process and thus making the firms become ‘Transnational. In this global competition, it is important for the firm to become transnational and internationalization process focuses mainly on the development of the individual firm on its gradual acquisition, integration, and use of knowledge about foreign markets and operations. (Dicken, P., 2007) Firms internationalization decision is mainly to acquire profits. The origins of the internationalisation of the industry are described by both macroeconomics approach, regarded as a general-system approach which is focused on the capitalist system as a whole, and microeconomics approach, based upon a firm-specific level. In a macroeconomics approach, the expansions of firms activities into foreign countries are explained by the circuits of capital and the theory of new international division of labour. A microeconomics approach entails the Dunnings eclectic paradigm and the theory of product life cycle. As most TNCs are capitalist enterprises, they behave according to basic rules of capitalism, the ways in which firm acquires profits along with various motives like increasing their market share, becoming industry leader or simply making firm bigger. But above all, the most important factor for internationalization is the pursuit of profits. In this competitive economy, competition b etween firms is becoming increasingly global and much more volatile not just confining them to national level but with firms across the world. Thus TNCs simply explain the need for internationalization at macro level in pursuit of profits and performance better in the global competitive economy. (Dicken, P., 1992) The new international division of labour, proposed by Stephen Hymer, is used to explain the shift of industrial production from the core (the industrialised countries) to the periphery (the developing countries). Firms in developed countries due to increasing wages in their home countries are forced to seek the alternative locations providing cheap labour, which are the third world countries. Dicken (1992) points out that even though this concept has some validity in explanation of internationalisation process, it also contains several drawbacks as it is excessively narrow and one-dimensional and it overstates the extent to which industrial production has been relocated to the global periphery. Micro level approach is an approach to understand the internationalization of economic activity through the TNC which is much as firm specific. The decision to become global firm is made by individual firms or more by decision makers in the firm rather than focusing upon the decisions at capitalist system as a whole like in macro level approach. According to Hymers pioneering study in 1960, domestic firms will have natural advantage over foreign firms in terms of better understanding of local market conditions and business environment. But, a foreign firm wishing to produce in any other market would have to posses some firm specific assets which overcome the natural advantages of domestic firm. These firm specific assets are like size of the firm and economies of scale, access to raw materials, marketing skills, technological expertise, reduced transaction costs or access to cheaper sources of finance, which makes a foreign firm to compete domestic firm in its home country. Hymers st udy expressed that the firm wishing in transnational production would have its own set of qualifying principles specific to ownership which overcome the advantages of indigenous firms in the country of production. (Nilsson, J.E, Dicken, P., Peck, J., 1996) In 1966, Vernon developed the product life cycle to explain the observed pattern of international trade. The theory suggests that in the earlier stages of products life cycle all the production activities of a product is done in the place in which it was invented. Once the product is used in the markets, production gradually moves away from the point of origin to the places with low production costs and high market activity, in order to acquire high profits by the firm. There are four stages in product life cycle: Introduction, growth, maturity and decline. The location of production depends on the stage of the cycle. In the introduction stage the firm seeks to build product awareness and develop a market for the product. In the growth stage, the firm tries to increase brand preference and market share. At maturity stage, the strong growth in sales decreases due to heavy competition between similar products. At this stage the primary objective of the firm is to defend the market shar es by expanding into new markets or low developing countries (LDCs) to maximize profits. In the final stage, due to decline in the sales, the firm tries to maintain the product by adding new features and targeting new markets. (Dicken 2003) According to Dunnings Eclectic Paradigm, a firm will engage in international production when each of the following three conditions is present: 1. Owner specific advantages, 2. Location specific advantages and 3. Internalization advantages. As the three principles are derived from variety of theoretical approaches such as the theory of the firm, organization theory, trade theory and location theory, dunning labelled his approach as ‘eclectic which integrates various strands of explanation of international production. Owner specific advantages or Firm specific advantages are assets which are internal to firm. Every firm must possess certain ownership specific advantages which are unique compared to their competing firms from other countries. These firm specific advantages are intangible and transferred within the TNC at low cost (e.g., technology, brand name, and benefits of economies of scale) which either provides higher revenues or lower costs that can reduce operating costs compared to its competitors in a foreign country.(Wattanasupachoke, 2002) A firm must possess location specific advantages to exploit its assets in foreign rather than domestic country. Therefore the location specific advantages of different countries are important in determining which will become host countries for the transnational corporations. They constitute economic, political and socio cultural advantages which are important factors in the context of transnational production. (Wattanasupachoke 2002) Transnational corporations choose internalization where the market does not exist or functions poorly. There must be internalization advantages to the firm from exploiting its advantages itself, rather than selling them or leasing them. The more uncertain the environment faced by the firm (which may be due to price, quality and availability of raw materials) the more likely a firm internalize its operations. Internalization occurs in the case of knowledge and technology, where many firms spend huge sums of money on various research and development. To ensure satisfactory returns on the investment without selling or leasing the technology to other foreign firms, the firm itself exploits its technological advantage directly by setting up its own production facilities. (Whitley, R., 1994) Under ‘eclectic theory other theories of internationalization are more concerned with the processes that a firm must go through. Sequential theory of internationalization is a process in which a firm enters into the foreign market. It is also called as ‘Uppsala model and the firm enters other markets through four discrete stages: Intermittent exports, exports via agents and through licensing, overseas sales through knowledge agreements with local firms (example franchising) and foreign direct investment (FDI) in the foreign market. Initially, the firm is purely a domestic firm in terms of both production and markets. Once the firm reaches saturation point in its domestic market, it looks into foreign markets in order to maintain growth and profitability. During early stages, the firm does this through exports using the services of overseas sales agent, who are independent of the exporting firm. In the second stage, the process of gaining control over its foreign sales is achieved by setting up its own sales outlets. This can be done in two ways, either by setting up an entirely new outlet or by acquiring local firm. When the firm performs better and acquires good profits, it decides on establishment of entire production facilities with consideration of its favourable factors in a foreign market. Figure1 shows the path of development of a firm in the evolution of a transnational corporation. (Wall and Rees, 2004) In a network perspective, the process of internationalization is like creating new relationships or building on existing relationships in international markets, with the focus shifting from the organizational to that of social. It is people who make decisions and take the actions. The series of networks are considered at three levels: Macro, Inter-organizational and Intra-organizational. (Wall and Rees, 2004) In network theory, the business environment is seen as a set of diverse interests, powers, characteristics which advances on national and international business decisions. At macro- level, a firm has to break old relationships or add new ones to enter new markets. A new entrant finds difficult to break into a market that already has stable relationship. Such firms are able to reconfigure the existing networks, thus more successful in internationalization process. At Inter-organizational level, firms are good in different relationships to one another in different markets. They may be competitors in one market, collaborators in other and ‘suppliers and customers to each other in a third. Thus, if one firm internationalizes it draws other firms into international production. At intra-organizational level, relations within the organization influence the decision making process. If a transnational corporation has its subsidiaries in other countries, decisions taken at the subsidiary level increases the degree of international involvement of the parent TNC, depending on the degree of decentralization of decision making by the firm. (Wall and Rees, 2004) The various theories explain the process of internationalization and results in the firms motivation for engaging in transnational operations. When a firm decides to establish a production facility in the foreign market it mainly focuses its interests in terms of size of the market and availability of requirements which are useful for the production facility. Though firms motivation in transnational production is highly individual, still it can be broadly classified into two categories: Market Orientation and Asset Orientation. (Dicken, 2007) Most foreign direct investment in the process of transnational production is designed to serve a specific location market by taking consideration of market size and other conditions. The goods and services produced in the foreign country are almost identical to that being produced in the firms home country but the firm modifies its products slightly in order to gain the tastes and preferences of the local market. Market oriented investment is a form of horizontal expansion across national boundaries which concentrates on three factors in making up the decision of the location. The most important factor is a size of the market measured in terms of per-capita income rather than in terms of population. For example, countries in Europe and US, though they have less population, their per-capita income is high. Population in countries with low income levels spend larger portion of their income on basic necessities while people in countries with high income levels spend higher portion of th eir income on higher order manufacture goods and services. The last important factor for market oriented production is accessibility into the markets (transportation) and other political barriers. (Dicken, 2007) The choice of strategy for transnational production will be influenced by the reasons for becoming transnational. Foreign direct investment is designed to take advantage of the fact that the various assets that a firm needs to produce are not available in the same quantity and quality everywhere. So, it is important for a firm to consider about asset orientated production when it becomes transnational. It is broadly classified into two ways: Technology and labour. Firm benefits from the production costs if there are low labour costs along with high technology. Variations in wage costs, labour productivity and knowledge and skills constitute asset based advantages to the firm becoming transnational. Once a firm has decided to go international, it takes place in wide variety of ways, most of which can be classified into three broad categories: Export based methods Non- equity methods Equity methods Export based methods for internationalization It is the most common way in which a firm becomes international, by producing its products in the domestic markets but exports a proportion of its products to foreign markets. Exporting is an oldest and straight forward way of carrying international business. Its growth can be reduced to the liberalisation of trade that has taken place globally and within regional trading blocs due to concept of free trade like European Union (EU), NAFTA (North American Free Trade Association), ASEAN (Association of South East Asian Nations), and APEC (Asia Pacific Economic Corporation). The export based methods of internationalizing are divided into ‘indirect exporting and ‘direct exporting. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Indirect exporting: When a firm does not have any international activity by itself then it operates through intermediaries for physical distribution of goods and services in the foreign market. Initially an export house buys products from domestic firm and sells them abroad on its own account. A confirming house acts for foreign buyers where it brings sellers and buyers into direct contact and guarantee payments on a commission basis. Finally a buying house performs functions in seeking out sellers to match buyers particular needs. Direct exporting: In this form a firm is directly involved in distributing and selling its own products to the foreign markets. It is long term commitment to a particular foreign market with the firm choosing local agents and distributors specific to that market. It allows the exporter to monitor developments and competitions in the host market. It promotes interaction between producer and end user with long term commitments such as providing after sales services to encourage repeat purchases. Non- Equity based methods for internationalization In this form of internationalization, the firm either sells technology or do business in the form of contract, involving patents, trademarks and copyrights. It is often referred to as intellectual property rights and form major part of international transactions. This non-equity method of internationalization takes into forms of licensing, franchising or other types of contractual agreement. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Licensing: It is a permission granted by the licensor (proprietary owner) to a licensee (foreign party) in the form of a contract to engage in an activity which is otherwise legally forbidden. The licensee buys the right to exploit technology and products from the licensor, which is protected by the intellectual property rights like patent, trademark or copyright. The licensor benefits from the licensees local knowledge and distribution channels; also it is a low cost strategy for internationalization since the foreign entrant makes little or no resource commitment. This type of agreement is mostly found in industries like RD and other industries where fixed costs are high. (Rugman and Hodgetts, 2003) Franchising: In this form, the franchisee purchases the right to undertake business activity using the franchisors name or trademark rather than any patented technology. Many firms choose franchising as a means of internationalizing as it establishes firms business in short time with relatively little direct investment and creates global image through standard marketing approach. It allows franchiser a high degree of control and enables to understand the local taste and preferences in the foreign country. For example, Coca-Colas franchising arrangements with various partners in different countries has given an advantage over its arch rival PepsiCo. Franchising also helps in building up global brand which can be cultivated and standardised overtime. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Other contractual modes of internationalization: Besides licensing and franchising, Management contracting is another form of internationalization where a supplier in one country provides certain ongoing management functions to a client in another country. Examples include technical service agreements are provided across borders, as when a company outsources its operations to a foreign firm. Contract-based partnerships are also formed between different nationalities in order to share the cost of an investment. For example, pharmaceutical companies, automobile companies make agreements between themselves to include cooperation, co-research and co-development activities. (Wall and Rees, 2004) Equity based methods for internationalization When a firm physically invests in any another country, it is referred as Foreign Direct Investment (FDI). The major advantage of this method is that the firm has greatest level of control over its proprietary information and technology. A firm can use different ways to FDI by acquiring an existing firm, creating equity joint ventures, merging or establishing a foreign operation by its own (green-field investment). (De Propris, L., 2009) Acquisition and Establishment of a firm by its own (green-field investment): Acquisition of an existing foreign company has a number of advantages compared to green-field investment. For example, it allows an immediate presence in the market which results in a fast returns on capital and ready access to knowledge of the local market. Also, problems associated with green-field investments such as cultural, legal and management issues are avoided. Joint Ventures: It involves creating a new identity in which both the initiating partners take active roles in formulating strategy and making decisions. It helps to share technologies and lower the costs of high risks in various development projects. Joint Ventures make firm to gain economics of scale and scope in value adding activities on a global basis. It creates a firm to secure access to partners technology and accumulate learning process which is used for more effective future competition in the industry. Joint Ventures are common in high technology industries; it usually takes one of the two forms: Specialized Joint Ventures and Shared value added Joint Ventures. (Wall and Rees, 2004) In Specialized Joint Ventures, each partner brings a specific competency like one firm might indulge in a function of production and other does with marketing. For example organizations like JVC (Japan) and Thomson (France) have been into specialized Joint Venture where JVC contributed the specialized skills involved the manufacturing technologies needed to produce optical and compact discs, semiconductors while Thomson contributed the specific marketing skills needed to compete in European markets. In Shared value added Joint Ventures, both partners contributed to same function or value added activity. For example in the case of Fuji-Xerox, it is a shared value added Joint Venture with the design, production and marketing function all shared between two firms. Merging with a firm: In this equity based method for internationalization, a firm uses FDI by merging with a firm in the foreign country by buying its stake and holding appropriate ownership in the form of equities. It helps to extend its business rapidly and can use its infrastructure and knowledge about local market to improve its market share compared to its competitors. In equity based methods for internationalization, creation of consortium is one of the oldest forms of foreign direct investment. East Asian business models like Japanese Keiretsu and South Korean chaebols are more successful in building cross industry consortia when compared to western countries. Consortium of these types are sophisticated forms of strategic alliances designed to maximise the benefits like risk sharing, cost reductions, economies of scale etc .They tend to have long term and stable inter firm relationships based on mutual obligations in order to be forerunner of technology based industries. The Japanese Keiretsu is a combination of 20-25 different industrial companies centred on a large traditional company where transactions conducted through alliances of affiliated companies. It is divided into two forms, horizontal keiretsu which consists of highly diversified groups which are organized around core bank and general trading company (For example, Mitsubishi, Mitsui and Sanwa). Vertical Keiretsu is organized around a large parent company in a specific industry like Toshiba, Toyota and Sony etc. There are strong linkages between these two forms and the organization is extremely complex and wide reaching. (De Propris, L., 2009 and Wall and Rees, 2004) The South Korean chaebols, usually dominated by the founding families are similar consortia which are centred on a holding company. While a Keiretsu is financed by group banks and run by professional managers, chaebols get their funding from governments and are managed by family members. Examples include Samsung, Daewoo etc are industrialist families and the company keeps the stock in family hands. (Wall and Rees, 2004) When a firm becomes transnational, it has specific impacts on both host economies and home economies. The impacts like transfer of resources, capital, technology, an increase of employment, concerns about sovereignty and trade and balance of payments occur on the host economy. The specific impacts on home economies will be like loss of technology, sovereignty, loss of employment and tax avoidance. Conclusion In the process of globalisation, a firm operates their activities globally and the internationalisation process is one of the primary sites of attention. The changes in the technology in the fields of telecommunications and computer lessen the costs of cross border operations and encourage firms to engage in transnational production activities. Internationalisation is a sequential process where firms internalise their economic activities characterised in terms of aggressiveness and motivated by either internal or external triggers or a combination of both. It is one of the key strategic decisions for firms to maximise or at least sustain profits to survive in the world of uncertainty and complexity. The global economic expansion has been largely facilitated by the growth of TNCs. They dominate world trade and capital movement with turnover exceeding the GNP of some countries. These corporations continue to grow and influence the landscape of the world economy. The various motives for the firms internationalization process has been discussed and the ways in which firm use FDI to engage in the transnational production makes it to compete globally. It seems clear that theories of internationalization make the firm to take up decision to become transnational with each specifying its implications and benefits. Dunnings eclectic paradigm emphasis on OLI advantages, stating a firm will engage in international production when each of the following three conditions is present. The various theories explain the process of internationalization and when a firm decides to establish a production facility in the foreign market it focuses mainly on the market size. Though firms motivation in transnational production is highly individual, still it is classified into Market Orientation and Asset Orientation which states the conditions for the firm to become transnational corporation. When firm decides to go international the various methods of internationalization like equity based, non equity based, export based are used to engage its production activities in terms of a trade off between ownership and market transactions. References Buckley, P.J., Ghauri, P.N., 1999, â€Å"The Internationalization of the firm†, 2nd Edition, London: Thomson. De Propris, L., 2009, Lecture slides on The Nature of Transnational Corporation and From TNCs to global production networks, Lecture 4 5. Dicken, P., 1992, â€Å"Global Shift: The Internationalisation of Economic Activity†, 2nd Edition, London: Paul Chapman. Dicken, P., 2003, â€Å"Global Shift: Reshaping the global economic map in the 21st century†, 4th Edition, London: Sage. Dicken, P., 2007, â€Å"Global Shift: Mapping the changing contours of the world economy†, 5th Edition, London: Sage. Dunning, J. H., â€Å"Multinational Enterprises and the Global Economy†, Workingham: Addison-Weslay, 1994. Hymer, S., â€Å"The Multinational Corporation and the law of uneven development†, in Radice, H., 1975 â€Å"International firms and modern imperialism†, Harmond-sworth: Penguin. Nilsson, J.E., Dicken, P., Peck, J., 1996, â€Å"Internationalization Process: European firms in global competition†, Ed, London: Paul Chapman. Rugman, A.M., and Hodgetts, R.M., 2003 â€Å"International Business†, 3rd Edition, England: Pearson. Walls, S., and Rees, B., 2004, â€Å"International Business†, 2nd Edition, England: Pearson, pp: 34-64. Wattanasupachoke, T., (2002) â€Å"Internationalization: Motives and Consequences†, ABAC Journal, 22, 16-30. Whitley, R., 1994, â€Å"The Internationalization of Firms and Markets: Its Significance and Institutional Structuring†, Organization Journal, 1, 101.

The features of the United States Dollar

The features of the United States Dollar The symbol $, usually written before the numerical amount, is used for the U.S. dollar (as well as for many other currencies). The signs ultimate origins are not certain, though it is possible that it comes from the Pillars of Hercules which flank the Spanish Coat of arms on the Spanish dollars that were minted in the New World mints in Mexico City, Potosà ­, Bolivia, and in Lima, Peru. These Pillars of Hercules on the silver Spanish dollar coins take the form of two vertical bars and a swinging cloth band in the shape of an S. An equally accepted, and better documented, explanation is that this symbol for peso was the result of a late eighteenth-century evolution of the scribal abbreviation ps. The p and the s eventually came to be written over each other giving rise to $. A fictional possibility suggested is that the dollar sign is the capital letters U and S typed one on top of the other. This theory, popularized by novelist Ayn Rand in Atlas Shrugged [23], does not consider the fact that the symbol was already in use before the formation of the United States. United States one-dollar bill ($1) Diagram shoes the obverse of the $1 bill The United States one-dollar bill ($1) is the most common denomination of US currency. The first president, George Washington, painted by Gilbert Stuart, is currently featured on the obverse, while the Great Seal of the United States is featured on the reverse. The one-dollar bill has the second oldest design of all U.S. currency currently being produced, after the two-dollar bill. The obverse seen today debuted in 1963 when the $1 bill first became a Federal Reserve Note. The inclusion of In God We Trust on all currency was required by law in 1955. The national motto first appeared on paper money in 1957.An individual dollar bill is also less formally known as a one, a single or a bone. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $1 bill in circulation is 21 months before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 45% of all U.S. currency produced today is one-dollar bills. All $1 bills produced today are Federal Reserve Notes. One-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in blue straps. Diagram shows reverse of the $1 bill Obverse of current $1 bill Detail of the Treasury Seal as it appears on a $1 bill The portrait of George Washington is displayed in the center of the obverse of the one-dollar bill, as it has been since the 1869 design. The oval containing George Washington is propped up by bunches of Bay Laurel leaves. To the left of George Washington is the Federal Reserve District Seal. The name of the Federal Reserve Bank that issued the note encircles a capital letter, (A-L), identifying it among the twelve Federal Reserve Banks. The sequential number of the bank, (1: A, 2: B, etc.), is also displayed in the four corners of the open space on the bill. Until the redesign of the higher denominations of currency beginning in 1996, this seal was found on all denominations of Federal Reserve Notes. Since then it is only present on the $1 and $2 notes, with the higher denominations only displaying a universal Federal Reserve System seal, and the bank letter and number beneath the serial number. To the right of George Washington is the Treasury Department seal. The balancing scales represent justice. The chevron with thirteen stars represents the original thirteen colonies. The key below the chevron represents authority and trust; 1789 is the year that the Department of the Treasury was established. Below the FRD seal (to the left of George Washington) is the signature of the Treasurer of the U.S., which occasionally varies, and below the USDT Seal (right side) is the Secretary of the Treasurys signature. To the left of the Secretarys signature is the series date. A new series date will result from a change in the Secretary of the Treasury, the Treasurer of the United States, and/or a change to the notes appearance such as a new currency design. On the edges are olive branches entwined around the 1s. Reverse of current $1 bill President Franklin Roosevelts conditional approval of the one-dollar bills design in 1935, requiring that the appearance of the sides of the Great Seal be reversed, and together, captioned. The reverse of the one-dollar bill has an ornate design which incorporates both sides of the Great Seal of the United States to the left and right of the word ONE. This word appears prominently in the white space at the center of the bill in a capitalized, shadowed, and seriffed typeface. A smaller image of the word ONE is superimposed over the numeral 1 in each of the four corners of the bill. THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA spans the top of the bill, ONE DOLLAR is emblazoned along the bottom, and above the central ONE are the words IN GOD WE TRUST, which became the official motto of the United States in 1956. Below the reverse of the Great Seal on the left side of the bill are the words THE GREAT SEAL, and below the obverse on the right side are the words OF THE UNITED STATES. Both reverse and obverse of the Great Seal contain symbols of historical, political, religious, and numerological significance. The Great Seal, originally designed in 1782 and added to the dollar bills design in 1935, is surrounded by an elaborate floral design. The renderings used were the typical official government versions used since the 1880s. The reverse of the seal on the left features a barren landscape dominated by an unfinished pyramid of 13 steps, topped by the Eye of Providence within a triangle. At the base of the pyramid are engraved the Roman numerals MDCCLXXVI (1776), the date of American independence from Britain. At the top of the seal stands a Latin phrase, ANNUIT COEPTIS, meaning He (God) favors our undertaking. At the bottom of the seal is a semicircular banner proclaiming NOVUS ORDO SECLORUM meaning New Order of the Ages, which is a reference to the new American era. To the left of this seal, a string of 13 pearls extends toward the edge of the bill. The obverse of the seal on the right features a bald eagle, the national bird and symbol of the United States. Above the eagle is a radiant cluster of 13 stars arranged in a six-pointed star. The eagles breast is covered by a heraldic shield with 13 stripes that resemble those on the American flag. As on the first US flag, the stars and stripes stand for the 13 original states of the union. The eagle holds a ribbon in its beak reading E PLURIBUS UNUM, a Latin phrase meaning Out of many [states], one [nation], a de facto motto of the United States (and the only one until 1956). In its left talons the eagle holds 13 arrows, and in its right talons it holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 olives, representing, respectively, the powers of war and peace. To the right of this seal, a string of 13 pearls extends toward the edge of the bill. Conspiracy The symbology of the Great Seal of the United States, and its subsequent use on the dollar bill (especially the pyramid and the Eye of Providence above the pyramid) are popular topics among conspiracy theorists. Conspiracy theorists are of the opinion that much of the symbolism involves occultism. For example, because the Eye of Providence above the unfinished pyramid is similar to the ancient Egyptian Eye of Horus, a charm, relating to the Pagan/Egyptian sky-god Horus which symbolized that worshipers will be protected and given royal powers from Pagan deities. In fact, Eye of Providence was a common Christian emblem symbolizing the Trinity throughout the Middle Ages and Renaissance. Conspiracy theorists also note that the unfinished pyramid has thirteen steps (or that some other element of the Seal numbers thirteen), and are of the opinion that the number 13 has conspiratorial significance. The explanation for the repetition of the number thirteen is that this number represents the original thirteen colonies which became the first thirteen states. United States two-dollar bill ($2) The United States two-dollar bill ($2) is a current denomination of U.S. currency. Former U.S. President Thomas Jefferson is featured on the obverse of the note. The reverse features an engraved modified reproduction of the painting The Declaration of Independence by John Trumbull. The bill was discontinued in 1966, but was reintroduced 10 years later as part of the United States Bicentennial celebrations. Today, however, it is rarely seen in circulation and actual use. Production of the note is the lowest of U.S. paper money: less than 1% of all notes currently produced are $2 bills. This comparative scarcity in circulation, coupled with a lack of public awareness that the bill is still in circulation, has also inspired urban legends and, on a few occasions, created problems for people trying to use the bill to make purchases. Throughout the $2 bills pre-1928 life as a large-sized note, it was issued as a United States Note, National Bank Note, Silver Certificate, and Treasury or HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_(Coin)_NoteHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_(Coin)_NoteCoinHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_(Coin)_NoteHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treasury_(Coin)_Note Note. When U.S. currency was changed to its current size, the $2 bill was issued only as a United States Note. After United States Notes were discontinued, the $2 bill later began to be issued as a Federal Reserve Note. United States five-dollar bill ($5) The United States five-dollar bill ($5) is a denomination of United States currency. The $5 bill currently features U.S. President Abraham Lincolns portrait on the front and the Lincoln Memorial on the back. All $5 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. Five dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in red straps. The $5 bill is sometimes nicknamed a fin. The term has German/Yiddish roots and is remotely related to the English five, but it is far less common today than it was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $5 bill in circulation is 16 months before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 9 percent of all paper currency produced by the U.S. Treasurys Bureau of Engraving and Printing today are $5 bills. United States ten-dollar bill ($10) The United States ten-dollar bill ($10) is a denomination of United States currency. The first U.S. Secretary of the Treasury, Alexander Hamilton, is currently featured on the obverse of the bill, while the U.S. Treasury is featured on the reverse. (Hamilton is one of two non-presidents featured on currently issued U.S. bills. The other is Benjamin Franklin, on the $100 HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_one_hundred-dollar_billbill. In addition to this, Hamilton is the only person featured on U.S. currency who was not born in the continental United States, as he was from the West Indies.) All $10 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $10 bill in circulation is 18 months before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 11% of all newly printed US banknotes are $10 bills. Ten dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in yellow straps. The source of the face on the $10 bill is John Trumbulls 1805 portrait of Hamilton that belongs to the portrait collection of New York City Hall. The $10 bill is the only U.S. paper currency in circulation in which the portrait faces to the left (the $100,000 bill features a portrait of Woodrow Wilson facing to the left, but was used only for intra-government transactions). United States twenty-dollar bill ($20) The United States twenty-dollar bill ($20) is a denomination of United States currency. U.S. President Andrew Jackson is currently featured on the front side of the bill, which is why the twenty-dollar bill is often called a Jackson, while the White House is featured on the reverse side. The twenty-dollar bill in the past was referred to as a double-sawbuck because it is twice the value of a ten-dollar bill, which was nicknamed a sawbuck due to the resemblance the Roman numeral for ten (X) bears to the legs of a sawbuck, although this usage had largely fallen out of favor by the 1980s.[1] The twenty dollar gold coin was known as a double eagle. Rather than a nickname, this nomenclature was specified by an act of Congress. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average circulation life of a $20 bill is 25 months (2 years) before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 22% of all notes printed today are $20 bills. Twenty-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in violet straps. United States fifty-dollar bill ($50) The United States fifty-dollar bill ($50) is a denomination of United States currency. Ulysses S. Grant is currently featured on the obverse, while the U.S. Capitol is featured on the reverse. All $50 bills issued today are Federal Reserve Notes. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $50 bill in circulation is 55 months before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 5% of all notes printed today are $50 bills. They are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in brown straps. A fifty dollar bill is sometimes called a Grant based on the use of Ulysses S. Grants portrait on the bill. Andrew Jacksons actions toward the Native Americans as a general, as well as during his Presidency, have led some historians to question the suitability of Jacksons depiction on the twenty-dollar bill. Howard Zinn, for instance, identifies Jackson as a leading exterminator of Indians, and notes how the public commemoration of Jackson obscures this part of American history. Those opposed to Central Banking point out the irony of Andrew Jackson on a Federal Reserve Note. Jackson spent much of his Presidency fighting against the Bank of the United States, which was at that time the government sanctioned Federal Bank. An email emerged after the events of 9/11 which alleged that folding the twenty-dollar bill a certain way produced images appearing to be 9/11 related (specifically the World Trade Center and the Pentagon burning).[9] United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) The United States one hundred-dollar bill ($100) is a denomination of United States currency. The redesigned $100 bill was unveiled on April 21, 2010, and the Federal Reserve Board will begin issuing the new bill on February 10, 2011. U.S. statesman, inventor, and diplomat Benjamin Franklin is currently featured on the obverse of the bill. On the reverse of the banknote is an image of Independence Hall. The time on the clock according to the U.S. Bureau of Engraving and Printing, shows approximately 4:10. The numeral four on the clock face is incorrectly written as IV whereas the real Independence Hall clock face has IIII. (See Roman numerals in clocks.) The bill is one of two current notes that do not feature a President of the United States; the other is the United States ten-dollar bill, featuring Alexander Hamilton. It is the largest denomination that has been in circulation since July 14, 1969, when the higher denominations of $500, $1,000, $5,000, $10,000 and $100,000 were retired. The Bureau of Engraving and Printing says the average life of a $100 bill in circulation is 60 months (5 years) before it is replaced due to wear. Approximately 7% of all notes produced today are $100 bills. The bills are also commonly referred to as Benjamins in reference to the use of Benjamin Franklins portrait on the denomination. They are also often referred to as C-Notes based on the Roman numeral C which means 100.One hundred-dollar bills are delivered by Federal Reserve Banks in mustard-colored straps ($10,000).The Series 2009 $100 bill redesign was unveiled on April 21, 2010 and will be issued to the public on February 10, 2011. Federal Reserve Note A Federal Reserve Note is a type of banknote. Federal Reserve Notes are printed by the United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing on paper made by Crane HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane__Co.HYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crane__Co. Co. of Dalton, Massachusetts. They are the only type of U.S. banknote that is still produced today and they should not be confused with Federal Reserve Bank Notes. Federal Reserve Notes are authorized by Section 411 of Title 12 of the United States Code. They are issued to the Federal Reserve Banks at the discretion of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The notes are then issued into circulation by the Federal Reserve Banks. When the notes are issued into circulation they become liabilities of the Federal Reserve Banks and obligations of the United States. Federal Reserve Notes are fiat currency, with the words this note is legal tender for all debts, public and private printed on each note. (See generally 31 U.S.C.  Ã‚  5103.) They have replaced United States Notes, which were once issued by the Treasury Department. Various Federal Reserve Notes, c.1995. Only the designs of the $1 and $2 (not pictured) are still in print. The New $100 Bill The redesigned $100 bill was unveiled on April 21, 2010, and the Federal Reserve Board will begin issuing the new note on February 10, 2011. The redesigned $100 note incorporates a number of security features, including two new advanced features, the 3-D Security Ribbon and the Bell in the Inkwell. It offers a simple and subtle way to verify that a new $100 note is real. These security features were developed to make it easier to authenticate the note and more difficult for counterfeiters to replicate. There are several new security features as stated below: 3-D Security Ribbon: Look for a blue ribbon on the front of the note. Tilt the note back and forth while focusing on the blue ribbon. You will see the bells change to 100s as they move. When you tilt the note back and forth, the bells and 100s move side to side. If you tilt it side to side, they move up and down. The ribbon is woven into the paper, not printed on it. Bell in the Inkwell: Look for an image of a color-shifting bell, inside a copper-colored inkwell, on the front of the new $100 note. Tilt it to see the bell change from copper to green, an effect which makes the bell seems to appear and disappear within the inkwell. Additional Design and Security Features: Three highly effective security features from the older design have been retained and updated in the new $100 note. Several additional features have been added to protect the integrity of the new $100 note. Portrait Watermark: Hold the note to light and look for a faint image of Benjamin Franklin in the blank space to the right of the portrait. Security Thread: Hold the note to light to see an embedded thread running vertically to the left of the portrait. The thread is imprinted with the letters USA and the numeral 100 in an alternating pattern and is visible from both sides of the note. The thread glows pink when illuminated by ultraviolet light. Color-Shifting 100: Tilt the note to see the numeral 100 in the lower right corner of the front of the note shift from copper to green. Raised Printing: Move your finger up and down Benjamin Franklins shoulder on the left side of the note. It should feel rough to the touch, a result of the enhanced intaglio printing process used to create the image. Traditional raised printing can be felt throughout the $100 note, and gives genuine U.S. currency its distinctive texture. Gold 100: Look for a large gold numeral 100 on the back of the note. It helps those with visual impairments distinguish the denomination. Micro printing: Look carefully to see the small printed words which appear on Benjamin Franklins jacket collar, around the blank space containing the portrait watermark, along the golden quill, and in the note borders. FW Indicator: The redesigned $100 notes printed in Fort Worth, Texas, will have a small FW in the top left corner on the front of the note to the right of the numeral 100. If a note does not have an FW indicator, it was printed in Washington, D.C. Federal Reserve Indicator: A universal seal to the left of the portrait represents the entire Federal Reserve System. A letter and number beneath the left serial number identifies the issuing Federal Reserve Bank. There are 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks and 24 branches located in major cities throughout the United States. Serial Numbers: The unique combination of eleven numbers and letters appears twice on the front of the bill. Because they are unique identifiers, serial numbers help law enforcement identify counterfeit notes, and they also help the Bureau of Engraving and Printing track quality standards for the notes they produce. Large Denominations of United States Currency Today, the base currency of the United States is the U.S. dollar, and is printed on bills in denominations of $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. At one time, however, it also included five larger denominations. High-denomination currency was prevalent from the very beginning of U.S. Government issue (1861). $500, $1,000, $5,000, and $10,000 interest bearing notes were issued in 1861, and $5,000 and $10,000 United States Notes were released in 1878 There are many different designs and types of high-denomination notes. The high-denomination bills were issued in a small size in 1929, along with the $1 through $100 denominations. The designs were as follows, along with their 1929 equivalents in current purchasing power (except for the $100,000 bill, which uses the 1934 equivalent): $1,000: Grover Cleveland, equal to $12,700 in 2010 dollars $5,000: James Madison, equal to $63,500 in 2010 dollars $10,000: Salmon P. Chase, equal to $127,000 in 2010 dollars The reverse designs abstract scrollwork with ornate denomination identifiers. All were printed in green, except for the $100,000. The $100,000 is an odd bill, in that it was not generally issued, and printed only as a gold certificate of Series of 1934. These gold certificates (of denominations $100, $1,000, $10,000, and $100,000) were issued after the gold standard was repealed and gold was compulsorily purchased by presidential order of Franklin Roosevelt on March 9, 1933 (see United States Executive Order 6102), and thus were used only for intra-government transactions. They are printed in orange on the reverse. This series was discontinued in 1940. The other bills are printed in black and green as shown by the $10,000 example (pictured at right). Although they are still technically legal tender in the United States, high-denomination bills were last printed in 1945 and officially discontinued on July 14, 1969, by the Federal Reserve System.[1] The $5,000 and $10,000 effectively d isappeared well before then: there are only about two hundred $5,000 bills, and three hundred $10,000 bills known, of all series since 1861. Of the $10,000 bills, 100 were preserved for many years by Benny Binion, the owner of BinionHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binions_HorseshoeHYPERLINK http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binions_Horseshoes Horseshoe casino in Las Vegas, Nevada, where they were displayed encased in acrylic. The display has since been dismantled and the bills were sold to private collectors. The Federal Reserve began taking high-denomination bills out of circulation in 1969. As of May 30, 2009, there were only 336 of the $10,000 bills in circulation; 342 remaining $5,000 bills; and 165,372 $1,000 bills still being used.[2] Due to their rarity, collectors will pay considerably more than the face value of the bills to acquire them. For the most part, these bills were used by banks and the Federal Government for large financial transactions. This was especially true for gold certificates from 1865 to 1934. However, the introduction of the electronic money system has made large-scale cash transactions obsolete; when combined with concerns about counterfeiting and the use of cash in unlawful activities such as the illegal drug trade, it is unlikely that the U.S. government will re-issue large denomination currency in the near future. According to the US Department of Treasury website, The present denominations of our currency in production are $1, $2, $5, $10, $20, $50, and $100. Neither the Department of the Treasury nor the Federal Reserve System has any plans to change the denominations in use today.